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Emperor Wu of Han
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Han Wudi
Han Wudi
Family name: Liu (?)
Given name: Zhi¹ (?), later Che² (?)
Courtesy name (?): Tong3 (?)
Dates of reign: Mar. 9, 141 BC–Mar. 29, 87 BC
Temple name: Shizong (??)
Posthumous name:
(short)
Emperor Wu (??)4
Posthumous name:
(full)
Emperor Xiao Wu (????)5
General note: Dates given here are in the proleptic Julian calendar.
They are not in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.
———
1. Allegedly, Emperor Jing, father of Emperor Wu, had a dream
in which the late Emperor Gaozu suggested this name.
Zhi means "pig", "hog".
2. Had his name changed into the more suitable Che when he was
officially made crown prince in April 150 BC.
3. This courtesy name is reported by Xun Yue (??) (148-209),
the author of Records of the Han Dynasty (??), but other sources
do not mention a courtesy name.
4. Literally meaning "martial".
5. Literally meaning "filial and martial".
Emperor Wu of Han (???, 156 BC[1]–March 29, 87 BC), personal name Liu Che (??), was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty in China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized, and is cited in Chinese history as one of the greatest emperors,[2] ranking alongside First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty and the Emperor Taizu of the Song dynasty (????,????).
As a military campaigner, Emperor Wu led Han China through its greatest expansion — at its height, the Empire's borders spanned from Kyrgyzstan in the west, to northern Korea in the northeast, and to northern Vietnam in the south. Emperor Wu successfully repelled the nomadic Xiongnu from systematically raiding northern China and dispatched his envoy Zhang Qian in 139 BC to seek an alliance with the Yuezhi of modern Uzbekistan. This resulted in further missions to Central Asia. Although historical records do not describe him as a follower of Buddhism, exchanges probably occurred as a consequence of these embassies, and there are suggestions that he received Buddhist statues from central Asia, as depicted in Mogao Caves murals.
While establishing an autocratic and centralized state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms would have an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighboring civilizations. Emperor Wu's reign lasted 54 years— a record that would not be broken until the reign of the Kangxi Emperor more than 1800 years later.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Background, birth, and years as crown prince
* 2 Early reign: the young years
* 3 Maturity in reign and territorial expansion
* 4 Further territorial expansion, old age, and paranoia
* 5 The Crown Prince Ju revolt
* 6 Late reign and death
* 7 Legacy
* 8 TV and Film
* 9 Bisexuality?
* 10 Poetry
* 11 Personal information
* 12 Era names
* 13 References
* 14 Notes
[edit] Background, birth, and years as crown prince
Emperor Wu was born as Prince Che to Emperor Jing and one of his favorite concubines, Consort Wang Zhi in 156 BC. His mother had initially been married once, to a Jin Wangsun (???) and had given birth to a daughter. However, her mother Zang Er (??) (a granddaughter of one-time Prince of Yan, Zang Tu (??), under Emperor Gao) was told by a fortuneteller that both Wang Zhi and her sister would one day become extremely honored. Zang got the idea to offer them to then-Crown Prince Liu Qi (later Emperor Jing) and forcibly divorced Wang Zhi from her husband to do so. He was born shortly after Prince Qi became emperor. When Consort Wang was pregnant, she claimed that she dreamed of a sun falling into her womb. In 153 BC, Prince Che was created the Prince of Jiaodong.
As Emperor Jing's Empress Bo had no sons, his oldest son Liu Rong (??), born of his other favorite concubine Consort Li (??), was created crown prince in 153 BC. Consort Li was arrogant and jealous, and she hoped to become princess after Empress Bo was deposed in 151 BC. However, her lack of tact would give Consort Wang a break. When Consort Li, out of a grudge to Emperor Jing's sister Princess Liu Piao (??), refused to let her son marry Princess Piao's daughter Chen Jiao, Consort Wang took the opportunity and had Chen Jiao betrothed to Prince Che. Princess Piao then began incessantly criticize Consort Li for her jealousy — pointing out that, if Consort Li became empress dowager, many concubines might suffer the fates of Consort Qi, Emperor Gao's favorite concubine who was tortured and killed by Emperor Gao's wife Empress Dowager Lü after Emperor Gao's death. Emperor Jing eventually agreed, and he deposed Prince Rong from his position in 150 BC. Consort Li died in anger. That year, Consort Wang was created empress, and Prince Che the crown prince. Given his young age, there was not much record of any accomplishments by him while being crown prince.
When Emperor Jing died in 141 BC, Crown Prince Che succeeded to the throne as Emperor Wu at age 15.
[edit] Early reign: the young years
After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, his grandmother Empress Dowager Dou became the grand empress dowager, and his mother Empress Wang became the empress dowager. He made his wife (and cousin, with Empress Chen being the daughter of his aunt) Chen Jiao empress.
In 140 BC, Emperor Wu conducted an imperial examination of over 100 young scholars recommended by officials. This event would prove to have a major impact on Chinese history, as it was the official start of the establishment of Confucianism as official imperial doctrine. This came about because a young Confucian scholar, Dong Zhongshu, was evaluated to be have submitted the best essay, in which he advocated the establishment of Confucianism. It is unclear whether Emperor Wu, in his young age, actually determined this, or whether this was the result of machinations of the prime minister Wei Wan (??), who was himself a Confucian. However, the fact that several other young scholars who scored highly on the examination (but interestingly enough, not Dong) later became trusted advisors for Emperor Wu would appear to suggest that Emperor Wu himself at least had some actual participation.[3]
The first few years of Emperor Wu's reign saw the administration dominated by three figures — his grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Dou, his mother Empress Dowager Wang, and her half-brother Tian Fen (??), who was created Marquess of Wu'an and made the commander of the armed forces after Emperor Wu became emperor. However, even during these years, Emperor Wu found chances to assert himself at times but found himself occasionally curbed by them. For example, in 139 BC, when Confucian officials Zhao Wan (??) and Wang Zang (??), who were disliked by the grand empress dowager because she was an adherent to Taoism rather than Confucianism, advised the emperor to no longer consult the grand empress dowager, she had them investigated and tried for corruption, and they committed suicide. Generally, however, Emperor Wu was constantly on the look out for young officials, around his age, whose suggestions for governing the state that he agreed with, and he took them into a close circle and promoted them out of normal seniority rotations, but unlike some other emperors in history who carried out these techniques, he was also not hesitant to remind these advisors that he was their overlord — including punishing them severely or even executing them if they were found to have been corrupt or have hidden even something minor from him. On the other hand, he respected those officials who did not flatter him and would honestly rebuke him when they saw fit, the most famous of whom was Ji An (??), whose comments were brutally honest and offensive in many ways, but whose integrity he respected. He also showed typical young male rebelliousness at times, often sneaking out of the capital disguised as a marquess, to hunt and sightsee.
Emperor Wu's marriage to Empress Chen was initially a happy one — so much so that he once boasted to her mother, Princess Piao, that he would build a golden house for Empress Chen. (This led to the Chinese idiom "putting Jiao in a golden house" (????), which, however, became a term for keeping a mistress rather than a wife.) However, this did not last, at least partly because Empress Chen never bore him a son, even after she was treated by physicians. Later, while visiting his sister Princess Pingyang, he was entertained by a female singer/dancer Wei Zifu (???), the daughter of one of the princess' lady servants, and Princess Pingyang offered Wei to become one of Emperor Wu's consorts. She became his favorite. Empress Chen was so jealous that she attempted suicide several times, but each time she failed; each attempt made Emperor Wu more angry at her. Princess Piao, in order to avenge her daughter, tried to have Consort Wei's brother Wei Qing (??) kidnapped and secretly executed, but Wei Qing was saved in time by his friends. Emperor Wu then made Wei Qing one of his close attendants and later a general.
In 135 BC, after Grand Empress Dowager Dou died, Emperor Wu began to assert himself even more. While Empress Dowager Wang and Tian Feng were still influential, they found that they no longer had as much control over the emperor as they formerly did.
Around the same time, Emperor Wu started to show will and aptitude for territorial expansion. The first example came in 138 BC, when Minyue (modern Fujian) attacked Donghai (modern Zhejiang) and Donghai sought help from Han, Emperor Wu acted quickly to try to relieve Donghai, over Tian's opposition. Upon hearing news of Han's expedition force being dispatched, Minyue withdrew. Fearful of another Minyue attack, Luo Wang (??), the King of Donghai, purportedly requested that his people be allowed to relocate into China proper, and Emperor Wu relocated them to the region between the Yangtze and Huai Rivers. In 135 BC, when Minyue attacked Nanyue, Nanyue also sought assistance from Han even though it probably had enough strength to defend itself — a sign of submission to the emperor's authority. Emperor Wu was greatly pleased by this gesture, and he dispatched an expedition force to attack Minyue, over the objection of one of his key advisors, Liu An, a royal relative and the Prince of Huainan. Minyue nobles, fearful of the massive Chinese force, assassinated their king Luo Ying (??) and sought peace. In a stroke of genius, Emperor Wu imposed a dual-monarchy system on Minyue by creating kings out of Luo Ying's brother Luo Yushan (???) and grandson Luo Chou (??), thus ensuring internal discord in Minyue. As to Xiongnu, he maintained heqin for sometime.
[edit] Maturity in reign and territorial expansion
The peace with Xiongnu would not last, however, because Emperor Wu was not satisfied with what he saw as appeasement of the Xiongnufongfuzongzu. In 133 BC, at the suggestion of Wang Hui (??), the minister of vassal affairs, he had his generals set a trap for the Xiongnu Chanyu Junchen (??). Under the plan, a power local gentleman, Nie Yi (??) from Mayi (??, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi) falsely claimed to offer Mayi to Xiongnu after killing the county magistrate to try to entice Chanyu Junchen into advancing on Mayi, while Han forces hid around Mayi to be ready to surprise the chanyu. The plan failed when a soldier captured by Xiongnu disclosed the entire plan to Chanyu Junchen, who then withdrew quickly before the Han forces could ambush him. This ended the peace between Han and Xiongnu, and for years there were continued border skirmishes even though, oddly, the states remained trade partners.
Emperor Wu dispatching Zhang Qian to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE.
Emperor Wu dispatching Zhang Qian to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE.
Another major battle was pitched in 129 BC when Xiongnu attacked the Commandery of Shanggu (??, roughly modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei), Emperor Wu dispatched four generals, Li Guang (??), Gongsun Ao (???), Gongsun He (???) and Wei Qing (??), each leading a 10,000-strong cavalry against Xiongnu. Both Li Guang and Gongsun Ao suffered major losses at Xiongnu's hands, and Gongsun He failed to find and engage the enemy, but Wei Qing distinguished himself with a long-distance raid on a Xiongnu holy site and was promoted to a larger command. In 127 BC, a force commanded by Wei defeated a substantial Xiongnu force and allowed Han to occupy the Shuofang (??) region (modern western central Inner Mongolia centering Ordos). The city of Shuofang (??) was built, and would later become a key post from which offensives against Xiongnu would be launched. When Xiongnu tried to attack Shuofang in 124 BC, Wei surprised them by attacking them from the rear and took about 15,000 captives — and at this battle, his nephew Huo Qubing distinguished himself in battle and was given his own command. In 121 BC, Huo had a major victory over the Xiongnu Princes of Hunxie (???) and Xiutu (???) — which had unforeseen good results for Han. When Chanyu Yizhixie (???) heard of the loss, he wanted to punish those princes harshly. The Prince of Hunxie, fearful of such punishment, after being unable to persuade the Prince of Xiutu, killed the Prince of Xiutu and surrendered his forces, which then controlled the Gansu region, to Han, and this turned out to be a major blow to Xiongnu, robbing Xiongnu of a major grazing region and other natural resources. Emperor Wu established five commanderies over the region and encouraged Chinese to relocate to the Gansu region, which has remained in Chinese hands ever since. The region would also become important staging grounds for the subjugation of Xiyu (??, modern Xinjiang and former Soviet central Asia).
The exploration into Xiyu was first started in 139 BC, that Emperor Wu commissioned Zhang Qian to seek out the Kingdom of Yuezhi, which had been expelled by Xiongnu from the modern Gansu region, to entice it to return to its ancestral lands with promises of Han military assistance, in order to fight against Xiongnu together. Zhang was immediately captured by Xiongnu once he ventured into the desert, but was able to escape around 129 BC and eventually made it to Yuezhi, which by then had relocated to Samarkand. While Yuezhi refused to return, it and several other kingdoms in the area, including Dayuan (Kokand) and Kangju, established diplomatic relationships with Han. Zhang was able to deliver his report to Emperor Wu when he arrived back in the capital Chang'an in 126 BC after a second and shorter captivity by Xiongnu. After the Prince of Hunxie surrendered the Gansu region, the path to Xiyu became clear, and regular embassies between Han and the Xiyu kingdoms commenced.
Another expansion plan, this one aimed at the southwest, was soon initiated as well. The impetus for this expansion was aimed at eventual conquest of Nanyue, which was viewed as an unreliable vassal, by first obtaining the submission the southwestern tribal kingdoms — the largest of which was Yelang (modern Zunyi, Guizhou) — so that a route for a potential back-stabbing attack on Nanyue could be made. The Han ambassador Tang Meng (??) was able to secure the submission of these tribal kingdoms by giving their kings gifts, and Emperor Wu established the Commandery of Jianwei (??, headquarters in modern Yibin, Sichuan) to govern over the tribes, but eventually abandoned it after being unable to cope with native revolts. Later, after Zhang Qian returned from the western region, part of his report indicated that by going through the southwestern kingdoms, embassies could reach Shendu (India) and Anxi (Parthia) easier. Encouraged by the report, in 122 BC, Emperor Wu sent ambassadors to try to again persuade Yelang and Dian (?, modern eastern Yunnan) into submission.
Emperor Wu also made an aborted expansion into the Korean Peninsula by establishing the Commandery of Canghai (??), but abandoned it in 126 BC.
It was also during this time that Emperor Wu began to show a fascination with immortality, and he began to associate with magicians who claimed to be able to, if they could find the proper ingredients, create divine pills that would confer immortality. However, he himself punished others' use of magic severely. In 130 BC, for example, when Empress Chen was found to have retained witches to curse Consort Wei and to try to regain Emperor Wu's affections, he had her deposed and the witches executed.
In 128 BC, Consort Wei bore Emperor Wu his first-born son, Liu Ju. She was created empress later that year, and he was created crown prince in 122 BC.
In 122 BC, Liu An, the Prince of Huainan (a previously trusted advisor of Emperor Wu), and his brother Liu Ci (??), the Prince of Hengshan, were accused of plotting treason. Both of them committed suicide, and their families and alleged coconspirators were executed.
Emperor Wu worshipping two statues of the Buddha in 120 BC, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE. (However, note that there is no historical record of Emperor Wu actually being aware of Buddhism. The first confirmed contact between a Chinese emperor and Buddhist doctrines would not happen until a century later, during the reign of Emperor Ming.)
Emperor Wu worshipping two statues of the Buddha in 120 BC, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE. (However, note that there is no historical record of Emperor Wu actually being aware of Buddhism. The first confirmed contact between a Chinese emperor and Buddhist doctrines would not happen until a century later, during the reign of Emperor Ming.[4])
In 119 BC, Emperor Wu broke the normal pattern of reacting against Xiongnu attacks, by making a major excursion against Xiongnu's headquarters. Wei and Huo's forces were able to make a direct assault on Chanyu Yizhixie's forces, nearly capturing him and annihilating his forces. It was at this battle, however, that the famous general Li Guang, whose fortunes had been effectively sabotaged by Wei (who, as the supreme commander, had intentionally ordered him to go through a region without Xiongnu forces but which lacked food and water, causing Li's forces to become lost and unable to join the main forces), committed suicide after being told that he would be arrested for his failures. Even though both Wei and Huo were successful, Emperor Wu particularly praised Huo and rewarded him with many others; it was from this point on that Huo began to receive primacy over the forces over his uncle Wei. After Xiongnu suffered these heavy losses, the Canyu sought heqin peace with Han again, but broke off peace talks after Han made it clear that it wanted Xiongnu to become a vassal instead.
Around the same time, perhaps as a sign of what would be to come, Emperor Wu began to trust governing officials who were harsh in their punishments. For example, one of those officials, Yi Zong (??), when he became the governor of the Commandery of Dingxiang (part of modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), executed 200 prisoners even though they had not committed capital crimes — and then executed their friends who happened to be visiting as well. Emperor Wu came to believe that this would be the most effective method to maintain social order and so put these officials in power. A famous wrongful execution happened in 117 BC, the victim of which was the minister of agriculture Yan Yi (??). Yan had previously offended the emperor by opposing a plan to effectively extort double tributes out of princes and marquesses — by requiring them to place their tributes on white deer skin, which the central government would sell them at an exorbantly high price. Later, Yan was falsely accused of committing a crime, and during the investigation, it became known that once, when a friend of Yan's criticized a law promulgated by the emperor, Yan, while not saying anything, moved his lips. Yan was executed for "internal defamation" of the emperor, and this caused the officials to be fearful and willing to flatter the emperor.
[edit] Further territorial expansion, old age, and paranoia
Starting about 113 BC, Emperor Wu appeared to begin to display further signs of abusing his power. He began to incessantly tour the commanderies, initially nearby Chang'an, but later extending to much farther places, worshipping the various gods on the way, perhaps again in the search of immortality. He also had a succession of magicians whom he honored with great things, even, in one case, making one a marquess and marrying a daughter to him. (That magician, Luan Da (??), after he was exposed to be a fraud, however, was executed.) Emperor Wu's expenditures on these tours and magical adventures put a great strain on the national treasury and caused difficulties on the locales that he visited, twice causing the governors of commanderies to commit suicide after they were unable to supply the emperor's entire train.
In 112 BC, a crisis in the Kingdom of Nanyue (modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam) would erupt that would lead to military intervention by Emperor Wu. At that time, the King Zhao Xing (??) and his mother Queen Dowager Jiu (???) — a Chinese woman whom Zhao Xing's father Zhao Yingqi (???) had married while he served as an ambassador to Han — were both in favor of becoming incorporated into Han. This was opposed by the senior prime minister Lü Jia (??), who wanted to maintain the kingdom's independence. Queen Dowager Jiu tried to goad the Chinese ambassadors into killing Lü, but the Chinese ambassadors were hesitant to do so. When Emperor Wu sent a 2,000-men force, led by Han Qianqiu (???) and Queen Dowager Jiu's brother Jiu Le (??), to try to assist the king and the queen dowager, Lü staged a coup d'etat and had the king and the queen dowager killed. He made another son of Zhao Yingqi, Zhao Jiande (???), king. He then annihilated the Han forces under Han and Jiu. Several months later, Emperor Wu commissioned a five-pronged attack against Nanyue. In 111 BC, the Han forces captured the Nanyue capital Panyu (??, modern Guangzhou) and annexed the entire Nanyue territory into Han, establishing nine commanderies.
Later that year, one of the co-kings of Minyue (modern Fujian), Luo Yushan, fearful that Han would next attack his kingdom, made a preemptive attack against Han, capturing a number of towns in the former Nanyue and in the other border commanderies. In 110 BC, under Han military pressure, his co-king Luo Jugu (???) assassinated Luo Yushan and surrendered the kingdom to Han. However, Emperor Wu did not establish commanderies in Minyue's former territory, but moved its people to the region between Yangtze and Huai Rivers.
Later that year, Emperor Wu, at great expense, carried out the ancient ceremony of fengshan (??) at Mount Tai — ceremonies to worship heaven and earth, and to offer a secret petition to the gods of heaven and earth, presumably seeking immortality. (He decreed that he would return to Mount Tai every five years to repeat the ceremony, but only did once, in 98 BC; still, many palaces were built for him and the princes to accommodate the anticipated cycles of the ceremony.)
It was around this time that, in reaction to the large expenditures by Emperor Wu that had exhausted the national treasury, his agricultural minister Sang Hongyang (???) conceived of a plan that many dynasties would repeat later, by creating national monopolies for salt and iron. The national treasury would further purchase other consumer goods when the prices were low and sell them when the prices were high at profit, thus replenishing the treasury while at the same time making sure the price fluctuation would not be too great.
In 109 BC, Emperor Wu would start yet another territorial expansion campaign. Nearly a century ago, a Chinese general Wei Man (??; Hangul: ??) had established a kingdom, which he named Chaoxian or Joseon (??/??) at Wangxian (??, modern Pyongyang), which became a nominal Han vassal. A conflict would erupt in 109 BC, when Wei Man's grandson Wei Youqu (???) refused to permit the Kingdom of Chen (?)'s ambassadors to reach China through his territories. When Emperor Wei sent an ambassador She He (??) to Wangxian to negotiate right of passage with King Youqu, King Youqu refused and had a general escort She back to Han territory — but when they got close to Han borders, She assassinated the general and claimed to Emperor Wu that he had defeated Joseon in battle, and Emperor Wu, unaware of his deception, made him the military commander of the Commandery of Liaodong (modern central Liaoning). King Youqu, offended, made a raid on Liaodong and killed She. In response, Emperor Wu commissioned a two-pronged attack, one by land and one by sea, against Joseon. Initially, Joseon offered to become a vassal, but peace negotiations broke down by the Chinese forces' refusal to let a Joseon force escort its crown prince to Chang'an to pay tribute to Emperor Wu. The two forces attacking Joseon were unable to coordinate well with each other and eventually suffered large losses. Eventually the commands were merged, and Wangxian fell. Han took over the Joseon lands and established four commanderies.
Also in 109 BC, Emperor Wu sent an expeditionary force against the Kingdom of Dian (modern eastern Yunnan), planning on conquering it, but when the King of Dian surrendered, Dian was incorporated into Han territory with the King of Dian being permitted to keep his traditional authority and title. Emperor Wu established five commanderies over Dian and the other nearby kingdoms.
In 108 BC, Emperor Wu sent general Zhao Ponu (???) on a campaign to Xiyu, and he forced the Kingdoms of Loulan (on northeast border of the Taklamakan Desert) and Cheshi (modern Turpan, Xinjiang) into submission. In 105 BC, Emperor Wu gave a princess from a remote collateral imperial line to Kunmo (??), the King of Wusun (Issyk Kol basin) in marriage, and she later married his grandson and successor Qinqu (??), creating a strong and stable alliance between Han and Wusun. The various Xiyu kingdoms would also strengthen their relationships with Han, in general. An infamous Han war against the nearby Kingdom of Dayuan (Kokand) would soon erupt in 104 BC. Dayuan refused to give in to Emperor Wu's commands to surrender its best horses, Emperor Wu's ambassadors were then executed when they insulted the King of Dayuan after his refusal. Emperor Wu commissioned Li Guangli (???), the brother of a favorite concubine Consort Li, as a general against Dayuan. In 103 BC, Li Guangli's forces, without adequate supplies, suffered a humiliating loss against Dayuan, but in 102 BC, Li was able to put a devastating siege on its capital by cutting off water supplies to the city, forcing Dayuan's surrender of its prized horses. This Han victory further intimidated the Xiyu kingdoms into submission.
Emperor Wu also made attempts to try to intimidate Xiongnu into submission, but even though peace negotiations were ongoing, Xiongnu would never actually submit to becoming a Han vassal during Emperor Wu's reign. In 103 BC, indeed, Chanyu Er would surround Zhao Ponu and capture his entire army — the first major Xiongnu victory since Wei Qing and Huo Qubing nearly captured the chanyu in 119 BC. Following Han's victory over Dayuan in 102 BC, however, Xiongnu became concerned that Han could then concentrate against it, and made peace overtures, but peace negotiations would be destroyed when the Han deputy ambassador Zhang Sheng (??) was discovered to have conspired to assassinate Chanyu Qiedihou (???). The ambassador, the later-famed Su Wu (??) would be detained for two decades. In 99 BC, Emperor Wu commissioned another expedition force aimed at crushing Xiongnu, but both prongs of the expedition force would fail — Li Guangli's forces became trapped but was able to free itself and withdraw, while Li Ling (??), Li Guang's grandson, after inflicting large losses on Xiongnu forces, was captured. Later, believing incorrectly that Li Ling had surrendered and was giving Xiongnu military advice, Emperor Wu had Li's clan executed. Li's friend, the famed historian Sima Qian (whom Emperor Wu already bore a grudge against because Sima's Shiji was not as flattering to Emperor Wu and his father Emperor Jing as Emperor Wu wanted), who tried to defend Li's actions, was castrated.
In 106 BC, in order the further better organize the territories, including both the previously-existing empire and the newly conquered territories, Emperor Wu divided the empire into 13 prefectures (zhou, ?), but without governors or prefectural governments at this time — that would come later. Rather, he assigned a supervisor to each prefecture, who would visit the commanderies and principalities in the prefecture on a rotating basis to investigate corruption and disobedience with imperial edicts.
In 104 BC, Emperor Wu built the luxurious Jianzhang Palace (???) — a massive structure that was intended to make him closer to the gods. He would later reside at that palace exclusively rather than the traditional Weiyang Palace (???), which Xiao He had built during the reign of Emperor Gao.
About 100 BC, due to the heavy taxation and military burdens imposed by Emperor Wu's incessant military campaigns and luxury spending, there were many peasant revolts throughout the empire. Emperor Wu issued an edict that was intended at suppressing the peasant revolts, by making officials whose commanderies saw unsuppressed peasant revolts liable with their lives — but which had the exact opposite effect, since it became impossible to suppress all of the revolts, and the officials would merely cover up the existence of the revolts.
In 96 BC, a series of witchcraft persecutions would begin. Large numbers of people, many of whom were high officials and their families, were accused of witchcraft and executed, usually with their clans. The first trial began with General Gongsun Ao and his wife, leading to the execution of their clan. Soon, these witchcraft persecutions would become intertwined in the succession struggles and erupt into a major catastrophe.
[edit] The Crown Prince Ju revolt
In 94 BC, Emperor Wu's youngest son Liu Fuling was born to a favorite concubine of his, Consort Zhao. Emperor Wu was ecstatic in having a child at his advanced age (62), and because Consort Zhao purportedly had a pregnancy that lasted 14 months long — the same length as the mythical Emperor Yao — he named Consort Zhao's palace gate "Gate of Yao's Mother." This led to speculations that he, due to his favor for Consort Zhao and Prince Fuling, wanted to make Prince Fuling crown prince instead. While there was no evidence that he actually intended to do anything of the such, over the next few years, there began to be conspirators against Crown Prince Ju and Empress Wei.
Up to this point, there had been a strong and cordial relationship between Emperor Wu and his crown prince. Even though Emperor Wu, as he grew older, had less and less attraction to Empress Wei, he continued to respect her and her son. Whenever Emperor Wu was outside the capital, he would leave important affairs for Crown Prince Ju to handle, and when he got back to the capital, Emperor Wu usually had no disagreements with Prince Ju's decisions and would not overrule them. However, as Emperor Wu grew older and became more trusting of harsh officials, those officials often raised objections against Prince Ju's more lenient rulings. Further, after Wei Qing died in 106 BC, Prince Ju had no strong allies left in the government, and the officials who disagreed with his lenient attitudes began to publicly defame him and plot against him. Also around this time, Emperor Wu was becoming more and more isolated, spending time mostly with young concubines, away from his sons and Empress Wei.
One of the conspirators against Prince Ju would be Jiang Chong (??), the head of the secret intelligence, who once had a run-in with Prince Ju after arresting one of Prince Ju's assistants for improper use of an imperial right of way. It appears likely that Jiang was behind many of the witchcraft accusations against important persons — including Prince Ju's sisters Princesses Zhuyi and Yangshi and cousin Wei Kang (??) (Wei Qing's son), who were executed in 91 BC after being accused of witchcraft. One other conspirator was Emperor Wu's guard Su Wen (??), who had falsely accused Prince Ju of committing adultery with Emperor Wu's junior concubines.
Jiang and Su decided on using witchcraft as the excuse to move against Prince Ju. Jiang, with approval from Emperor Wu, who was then at his summer palace in Ganquan (??, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), searched through various palaces, ostensibly for witchcraft items, eventually reaching Prince Ju's palace. He planted dolls and a piece of cloth with mysterious writing in Prince Ju's palace, and then announced that he found them there. Prince Ju was shocked. He considered his options, and his teacher Shi De (??), invoking the story of Ying Fusu and raising the possibility that Emperor Wu might already be deceased, suggested that Prince Ju start an uprising. Prince Ju initially hesitated and wanted to speedily proceed to Ganquan to try to see his father to explain himself, but he found out that Jiang's messengers were already on their way. He decided to accept Shi's suggestion.
Prince Ju then sent an individual to impersonate a messenger from Emperor Wu to arrest Jiang and his coconspirators — except for Su, who escaped. After they were arrested, Prince Ju personally killed Jiang. He then led the guards of his and Empress Wei's palaces and prepared to defend himself. Su fled to Ganquan and accused Prince Ju of treason. Emperor Wu, not believing it to be true and correctly (at this point) believing that Prince Ju had merely been angry at Jiang, sent a messenger back to Chang'an to summon Prince Ju. The messenger did not dare to proceed to Chang'an, but instead returned and falsely reported to Emperor Wu that he fled because Prince Ju was going to kill him. By now enraged, Emperor Wu ordered his nephew, Prime Minister Liu Qumao (???), to put down the rebellion. The forces battled for five days, but Liu Qumao's forces prevailed after it became clear that Prince Ju did not have his father's authorization. Prince Ju fled the capital.
Emperor Wu continued to be enraged and ordered that Prince Ju be tracked down, but after a junior official risked his life and spoke on Prince Ju's behalf, Emperor Wu's anger began to subside, but he had not yet issued a pardon for Prince Ju when Prince Ju, having fled to Hu (??, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan) and surrounded by troops, committed suicide by hanging. Two of his sons died with him.
[edit] Late reign and death
Even after Jiang Chong and Prince Ju both died, however, the witchcraft affairs would continue. One final prominent victim was the general Li Guangli, who had prior victories over Dayuan and Xiongnu. In 90 BC, while Li was on a campaign against Xiongnu, an eunuch falsely accused Li and his political ally, Prime Minister Liu Qumao, of witchcraft. Liu and his family were immediately executed. Li's family was arrested. Li, hoping to save himself, used risky tactics to try to have a major victory against Xiongnu to try to get Emperor Wu to change his mind, but failed when some of his senior officers mutinied. On his retreat, he was ambushed by Xiongnu forces, and he surrendered. His clan was slaughtered.
By this time, however, Emperor Wu had begun to realize that the witchcraft accusations were often false accusations. In 89 BC, when Tian Qianqiu (???), then the superintendent of Emperor Gao's temple, wrote a report claiming that Emperor Gao told him in a dream that Prince Ju should have only been whipped, not killed, Emperor Wu had a revelation about what happened, and he had Su killed by burning and Jiang's family executed. He also made Tian prime minister. However, although he claimed to miss Prince Ju greatly, he did not at this time rectify the situation where Prince Ju's surviving progeny, a grandson named Liu Bingyi, languished in prison as a child.
The political scene now greatly changed. Tian was in favor of resting the troops and the people and promoting agriculture, and under his recommendation, several agricultural experts were made important members of the administration. Wars and territorial expansion generally ceased.
By 88 BC, Emperor Wu was ill, but with Prince Ju dead, there was no clear successor. Liu Dan, the Prince of Yan, was Emperor Wu's oldest surviving son, but Emperor Wu considered both him and his younger brother Liu Xu, the Prince of Guangling, to be unsuitable, since neither respected laws. He decided on his youngest son, Liu Fuling, who was only six at that time. He therefore also chose a potential regent in Huo Guang, whom he considered to be capable and faithful. He also ordered Prince Fuling's mother, Consort Zhao, arrested and executed, in fear that she would become an uncontrollable empress dowager like Empress Lü (??). He entrusted Huo with the regency of Fuling. At Huo's suggestion, he also made ethnic Xiongnu official Jin Ridi and general Shangguang Jie coregents. He died in 87 BC, shortly after creating Prince Fuling crown prince. Crown Prince Fuling then succeeded to the throne as Emperor Zhao.
Because Emperor Wu did not create anyone empress after Empress Wei committed suicide and left no instruction on who should be enshrined in his temple with him, Huo, after Emperor Wu's death, considered what his wishes would have been, chose to enshrine Consort Li with Emperor Wu. They lie buried in the Maoling mound, the most famous of the so-called Chinese pyramids.
[edit] Legacy
Historians generally treated Emperor Wu with ambivalence. On one hand, he was recognized for neutralizing the Xiongnu threat and expanding the Chinese territory. During his reign, China roughly doubled her size, and most of the territories he annexed became part of China proper permanently. His other, perhaps greater, legacy was the promotion of Confucianism. For the first time in history, Confucianism became the dominant thought in the Chinese government, and it remained so until the overthrow of monarchy in 1911.
On the other hand, many historians criticized Emperor Wu for extravagancy, superstition, and the burdens his policies forced on the population. As such he was often compared to Qin Shihuang.[5] Just like Qin Shihuang he used a Legalist system of reward and punishment to govern his empire. The punishment for perceived failures and disloyalty was often exceedingly harsh. Out of the twelve Prime Ministers appointed by Emperor Wu, three were executed and two committed suicide while holding the post; another was executed in retirement. Castration as a way of punishment was also applied relatively frequently during Emperor Wu's reign.
Emperor Wu's political reform resulted in the strengthening of the Emperor's power at expense of the Prime Minister's authority. Also, the post of shangshu (court secretaries) was elevated from merely managing documents to that of the Emperor's close advisor, and it stayed this way until the end of monarchy.
[edit] TV and Film
Emperor Wu, one of the most famous emperors of ancient China, has made appearances in a few Chinese TV dramas.
* Da Han Tian Zi
* Han Wu Da Di
[edit] Bisexuality?
Early in his reign, Emperor Wu greatly favored Han Yan (??), for no apparent reason, and he gave Han much wealth (although no official position at court). This, coupled with later references by officials trying to persuade Emperor Ai against giving his male lover Dong Xian too much authority — during which those officials analogized Han's position to Dong's[6] — has led to speculation that Emperor Wu had a homosexual relationship with Han. It is quite possible, but also hardly proven based on available evidence. It should be noted that this relationship would lead to Han's death. As part of his favors on Han, Emperor Wu permitted him to ride in imperial wagons even when he was not with Han. On one occasion, Han was riding such a wagon when Emperor Wu's brother, Liu Pengzu (???) the Prince of Zhao, encountered the wagon and, believing that Emperor Wu was inside, prostrated himself. Later, when he found out that Han, not Emperor Wu, was inside, he was greatly humiliated and complained to Empress Dowager Wang, who then had Han executed.
[edit] Poetry
Although Emperor Wu wasn't an established poet, he wrote some works. The following work is on the death of Li Fu-ren, one of his favorite concubines.
[7]
The sound of her silk skirt has stopped.
On the marble pavement dust grows.
Her empty room is cold and still.
Fallen leaves are piled against the doors.
How can I bring my aching heart to rest?
[edit] Personal information
* Father: Emperor Jing of Han (9th son of)
* Mother: Empress Wang Zhi
* Wives:
o Empress Chen Jiao (deposed 130 BC)
o Empress Wei Zifu (committed suicide 91 BC), mother of Crown Prince Ju and Princesses Zhuyi and Yangcheng
* Major concubines:
o Consort Li, mother of Princes Dan and Xu
o Consort Zhao, mother of Emperor Zhao
o Consort Li, mother of Prince Bo
o Consort Wang, mother of Prince Hong
* Children:[8]
o Liu Ju (??), Crown Prince Li (b. 128 BC, created 122 BC, d. 91 BC)
o Liu Fuling (???), later Emperor Zhao of Han (b. 94 BC)
o Liu Hong (??), Prince Huai of Qi (created 117 BC, d. 109 BC)
o Liu Dan (??), Prince La of Yan (created 117 BC, committed suicide 80 BC)
o Liu Xu (??), Prince Li of Guangling (created 117 BC, committed suicide 53 BC)
o Liu Bo (??), Prince Ai of Changyi (created 97 BC, d. 86 BC)
o Princess Zhuyi
o Princess Yangcheng
o Princess Eyi
[edit] Era names
* Jianyuan (?? py. jiàn yuán) 140 BC-135 BC
* Yuanguang (?? py. yuán guang) 134 BC-129 BC
* Yuanshuo (?? py. yuán shuò) 128 BC-123 BC
* Yuanshou (?? py. yuán shòu) 122 BC-117 BC
* Yuanding (?? py. yuán ding) 116 BC-111 BC
* Yuanfeng (?? py. yuán feng) 110 BC-105 BC
* Taichu (?? py. tài chu) 104 BC-101 BC
* Tianhan (?? py. tian hàn) 100 BC-97 BC
* Taishi (?? py. tài shi) 96 BC-93 BC
* Zhenghe (?? py. zheng hé) 92 BC-89 BC
* Houyuan (?? py. hòu yuán) 88 BC-87 BC
[edit] References
* Zizhi Tongjian by Sima Guang, Modern Chinese Edition edited by Bo Yang (Taipei, 1982-1989).
* Shi Ji by Sima Qian: Biography of Han Wudi.
* Han Shu by Ban Gu: Biography of Han Wudi.
* Han Ji by Xun Yue
* Morton, W. Scott. China: "Its History and Culture". ISBN 0-07-043424-7.
[edit] Notes
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Emperor Wu of Han
1. ^ His date of birth is sometimes noted as being August 27.
2. ^ See Bo Yang's commentary in the Modern Chinese edition of Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 7, and Zhao Yi (??)'s commentary included therein.
3. ^ See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 17.
4. ^ See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 45.
5. ^ See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 22.
6. ^ See Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 35.
7. ^ Morton, W. Scott. China: "Its History and Culture", 54. ISBN 0-07-043424-7.
8. ^ See Han Shu, ch. 63 and ch. 97.
Preceded by
Emperor Jing of Han Emperor of the Han Dynasty
141 BC–87 BC Succeeded by
Emperor Zhao of Han
{geni:occupation} Emperor of the Han Dynasty from 141 BC - 87 BC
{geni:about_me} http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han
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